New Kings And Kingdoms

The Chola temples were not merely places of worship. They often became nuclei of settlements, which grew around them.The Brahman priests imparted education in Sanskrit in these temples. Important meetings were sometimes held inside the temple complex. These were also centres of craft production. Fairs were organised during religious festivals.Temples gave employment to a large number of people including priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers etc. So we can say, temples were not only places of worship; they were hub of economic, social and cultural life as well.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was the ruler of Afghanistan. He ruled from A.D 997 to 1030 and extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and north-western part of the subcontinent. He raided the subcontinent almost every year. His later invasions were specifically directed to temple towns, including that of Somnath, Gujarat, as Indian temples were depositories of great wealth. Much of the wealth that Mahmud carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. He entrusted a scholar named al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent. This Arabic work, known as Kitab-al Hind remains an important source for historians

Kings often acknowledged big landlords or warrior chiefs, in different regions of the subcontinent, as their subordinates or samantas. They provided military support to the king. The king became increasingly dependent on these chiefs. Some of these warrior chiefs grew ambitious and some of them became independent when the king�s power declined. For example, Rashtrakutas were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka who rose to power by overthrowing their overlords.

Revenue in the kingdom was collected from peasants, cattle�keepers, artisans and traders. Members of influential family were appointed by the king to collect revenue. These positions were often hereditary.

Any person fulfilling the following conditions could participate in the sabha:

1. All those who wished to become members of the Sabha had to be the owners of the land.
2. They should have their own homes.
3. They should be between 35 and 70 years of age.
4. They should have knowledge of the Vedas.
5. They should be well versed in administrative matters and be honest.
6. If anyone was a member of any committee in the last three years, he could become a member of another committee in the coming years

The Chola administration was highly organized and efficient. The King was an important person. Nadu, groups of villages, had many administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes, 'ur' was a village assembly and they looked after the administration of the village.

Chola temples were the Centers of Craft production in the big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda. Cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra are an exclusive example of architectural and Sculptural marvels. Temples were not only the places of worship, they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world.

The most famous works are

• Jaideva - He wrote 'Geet Govinda'
• Chand Bardai - He wrote 'Prithviraja Raso' describing the adventures of great Chauhan King Prithviraj.

Prashastis tell us about the rulers how they depicted themselves � as valiant, victorious warriors. Learned Brahmans were those who helped in the administration, so prashastis may not be literally true.

The second battle of Tarain was fought between Mohammed Ghori and Prithviraja. Ghori defeated Prithviraja in this battle.

From ninth to thirteenth century, three powers � Gurjara-Pratihara of western India, Rashtrakutas of the north�western Deccan and Palas of Bengal, fought for control over Kanauj. As there were three powers in this long drawn conflict, historians often describe it as �tripartite struggle�.

Tax free lands granted to Brahmanas were called Brahmadeya. As a result of these grants, a large number of Brahman settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of south India. Land gifted to the temples was called Devadana. Often entire villages were given to the villagers.

The Tang empire was administered by a bureaucracy recruited through an examination guided by the emperor himself, which was open to all who wished to appear for it.Generally, the Imperial Examination System was a progressive examination that allowed intellectuals born in poor families to have the opportunity to become an officer in the court.From the imperial point of view, this examination system helped to enhance the centralisation of imperial power.

Land grants to Brahmanas were called Brahmadeya. Lands were given as Brahmadeya either to a single Brahman or to several Brahman families. Brahmadeya land could vary from a small plot, a single village or several villages. Each Brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or Sabha of prominent Brahman landholders. Brahmadeya villages must have formed a small proportion of settlements in some areas. The taxes from such villages were assigned to the Brahman donees, who were also given the right to get the donated land cultivated.

States obtained resources from producers such as peasants, cattle-keepers and artisans. They had to give half of the things that they produced.

There were two method of Collecting Resources:

• The Kings claimed that they were lords of the lands and rent should be paid to them.
• Compelling and forcing the producers was another method of obtaining resources

Vetti and Kadamai were two taxes imposed on the people by the Chola kings. Vetti was a tax that was not collected in the form of cash but in the form of forced labour. And kadamai was a land revenue.

Names of eligible members were written on small tickets of palm leaf. These tickets were put into an earthen pot from which a young boy was asked to pick the tickets, one by one for each committee.